Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD or APD) is a personality disorder characterized by a long term pattern of disregard for, or violation of, the rights of others. A low moral sense or conscience is often apparent, as well as a history of crime, legal problems, or impulsive and aggressive behavior.[3][4]
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD or APD) is a personality disorder characterized by a long term pattern of disregard for, or violation of, the rights of others. A low moral sense or conscience is often apparent, as well as a history of crime, legal problems, or impulsive and aggressive behavior.[3][4]
Antisocial personality disorder is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Dissocial personality disorder (DPD), a similar or equivalent concept, is defined in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), which includes antisocial personality disorder in the diagnosis. Both manuals provide similar criteria for diagnosing the disorder.[5] Both have also stated that their diagnoses have been referred to, or include what is referred to, as psychopathy or sociopathy, but distinctions have been made between the conceptualizations of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy, with many researchers arguing that psychopathy is a disorder that overlaps with, but is distinguishable from, ASPD.[6][7][8][9][10]
Personality disorders (PD) are a class of mental disorders characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating from those accepted by the individual's culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significant distress or disability. The definitions may vary somewhat, according to source.[2][3][4] Official criteria for diagnosing personality disorders are listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the fifth chapter of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Personality, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish individual humans. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that differ from social norms and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. In general, personality disorders are diagnosed in 40–60% of psychiatric patients, making them the most frequent of psychiatric diagnoses.[5]
Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring collection of behavioral patterns often associated with considerable personal, social, and occupational disruption. Personality disorders are also inflexible and pervasive across many situations, largely due to the fact that such behavior may be ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are therefore perceived to be appropriate by that individual. This behavior can result in maladaptive coping skills and may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress, or depression. These behaviour patterns are typically recognized in adolescence, the beginning of adulthood or sometimes even childhood and often have a pervasive negative impact on the quality of life.[2][6][7]
Many issues occur with classifying a personality disorder. Because the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders occur within prevailing cultural expectations, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of inevitable subjectivity. They argue that the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders are based strictly on social, or even sociopolitical and economic considerations.[8]
The term narcotic (/nɑːrˈkɒtɪk/, from ancient Greek ναρκῶ narkō, "to make numb") originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties. In the United States, it has since become associated with opiates and opioids, commonly morphine and heroin, as well as derivatives of many of the compounds found within raw opium latex. The primary three are morphine, codeine, and thebaine (while thebaine itself is only very mildly psychoactive, it is a crucial precursor in the vast majority of semi-synthetic opioids, such as oxycodone).
Legally speaking, the term "narcotic" is imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations.[1][2] When used in a legal context in the U.S., a narcotic drug is one that is totally prohibited, such as heroin, or one that is used in violation of governmental regulation.
In the medical community, the term is more precisely defined and generally does not carry the same negative connotations.[3][4][5]
Statutory classification of a drug as a narcotic often increases the penalties for violation of drug control statutes. For example, although federal law classifies both cocaine and amphetamines as "Schedule II" drugs, the penalty for possession of cocaine is greater than the penalty for possession of amphetamines because cocaine, unlike amphetamines, is classified as a narcotic.
Heroin, also known as diamorphine among other names,[1] is an opioid most commonly used as a recreational drug for its euphoric effects.[2] It is used medically in several countries to relieve pain or in opioid replacement therapy.[7][8][9] It is typically injected, usually into a vein, but it can also be smoked, snorted, or inhaled.[2][10][11] The onset of effects is usually rapid and lasts for a few hours.[2]
Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction.[10] Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia.[10] After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use.[10] When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine.[2] It typically comes as a white or brown powder.[10]
Treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications.[10] Medications can include buprenorphine, methadone, or naltrexone.[10] A heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone.[10] An estimated 17 million people as of 2015[update] use opiates, of which heroin is the most common,[12][13] and opioid use resulted in 122,000 deaths.[14] The total number of heroin users worldwide as of 2015 is believed to have increased in Africa, the Americas, and Asia since 2000.[15] In the United States, approximately 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point, with 950,000 using it in the last year.[10][16] When people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid and often heroin.[12][17]
Heroin was first made by C. R. Alder Wright in 1874 from morphine, a natural product of the opium poppy.[18] Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs,[19] and it is generally illegal to make, possess, or sell without a license.[20] About 448 tons of heroin were made in 2016.[15] In 2015, Afghanistan produced about 66-percent of the world's opium.[12] Illegal heroin is often mixed with other substances such as sugar, starch, quinine, or strychnine.[2]
Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug.[11] It is commonly snorted, inhaled as smoke, or dissolved and injected into a vein.[10] Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation.[10] Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, and large pupils.[10] High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature.[12] Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes.[10] Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery.[13]
Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain.[11] After a short period of use, there is a high risk that dependence will occur.[11] Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, and sudden cardiac death.[11][14] Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity.[15] Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure and be very physically tired.[11]
Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.[11] This results in greater concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain.[11] It can easily cross the blood–brain barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier.[16][17] Cocaine is a naturally occurring substance found in the coca plant which is mostly grown in South America.[10] In 2013, 419 kilograms were produced legally.[18] It is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to US$500 billion each year.[11] With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine.[11]
Cocaine is the second most frequently used illegal drug globally, after cannabis.[19] Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year.[11] Use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America.[11] Between one and three percent of people in the developed world have used cocaine at some point in their life.[11] In 2013, cocaine use directly resulted in 4,300 deaths, up from 2,400 in 1990.[20] The leaves of the coca plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times.[15] Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860.[11] Since 1961, the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime.[21]
Violence is "the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy."[2] Less conventional definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation."[3]
Globally, violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990.[4] Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm (suicide), 405,000 to interpersonal violence, and 31,000 to collective violence (war) and legal intervention.[4] In Africa, out of every 100,000 people, each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death.[5] For each single death due to violence, there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, and thousands of doctors' appointments.[6] Furthermore, violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development.
In 2013, assault by firearm was the leading cause of death due to interpersonal violence, with 180,000 such deaths estimated to have occurred. The same year, assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000 deaths, with a remaining 110,000 deaths from personal violence being attributed to other causes.[4]
Violence in many forms can be preventable. There is a strong relationship between levels of violence and modifiable factors in a country such as concentrated (regional) poverty, income and gender inequality, the harmful use of alcohol, and the absence of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships between children and parents. Strategies addressing the underlying causes of violence can be relatively effective in preventing violence, although mental and physical health and individual responses, personalities, etc. have always been decisive factors in the formation of these behaviors.[7]
Māyā (Sanskrit; Tibetan wyl.: sgyu) is a Buddhist term translated as "pretense" or "deceit" that is identified as one of the twenty subsidiary unwholesome mental factors within the Mahayana Abhidharma teachings. In this context, it is defined as pretending to exhibit or claiming to have a good quality that one lacks.[
첨(諂, 산스크리트어: māyā, 영어: pretense, deceit)은 설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중 소번뇌지법(小煩惱地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이며, 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지)의 수번뇌심소(隨煩惱心所: 20가지) 중 소수번뇌심소(小隨煩惱心所: 10가지) 가운데 하나이다.[1][2]
첨(諂, māyā)은 다른 이들을 속이기 위해 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 스스로를 은폐하게 하는 마음작용이다. 달리 말하면, 첨(諂)은 다른 사람들이 자신의 속마음을 있는 그대로 명료하게 알 수 있지 못하도록 하고 그럼으로써 그 사람들이 자신을 계속 믿게 하는 것을 목적으로 하는 마음작용으로서, 남을 적극적으로 속임으로써 '속임'을 달성하는 것이 아니라 자신의 속마음을 은폐함으로써 '속임'을 달성하려는 마음작용이다. 보다 구체적으로는, 첨(諂)은 이러한 '속임'이라는 목적을 달성하기 위해 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음을 있는 그대로 참답게 드러내지 않게 하려는 마음작용이며, 또는 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음과는 다른 속마음을 가장하여 드러내게 함으로써 실제의 속마음이 드러나지 않게 하려는 마음작용이며, 또는 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음을 은폐하기 위해 아곡(阿曲: 간사하게 자기의 뜻을 굽혀 남에게 영합하고 아첨함[3]) 등과 같은 어떤 수단 또는 방편을 사용하게 하는 마음작용이다.[4]
薩迦耶見（巴利語：sakkāya-diṭṭhi，梵語：satkāya-dṛṣṭi），音譯為薩迦耶達利瑟致，義譯為有身見、身見、虛偽身見、移轉身見，佛教術語，被列為五見、十隨眠之一，含攝認為由五蘊組成的身體之中，存在自我，並升起「這是我」、「這是我所擁有」的各種見解
satkāya-dṛṣṭi
Maya (/ˈmɑːjə/; Devanagari: माया, IAST: māyā), literally "illusion" or "magic",[1][2] has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In ancient Vedic literature, Māyā literally implies extraordinary power and wisdom.[3] In later Vedic texts and modern literature dedicated to Indian traditions, Māyā connotes a "magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem".[2][4] Māyā is also a spiritual concept connoting "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal", and the "power or the principle that conceals the true character of spiritual reality".[5][6]
In Buddhism, Maya is the name of Gautama Buddha's mother.[7] In Hinduism, Maya is also an epithet for goddess,[8] and the name of a manifestation of Lakshmi, the goddess of "wealth, prosperity and love". Maya is also a name for girls.[7][9]
The Early Buddhist Texts contain some references to illusion, the most well known of which is the Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta in Pali (and with a Chinese Agama parallel at SĀ 265) which states:
These texts give the impression that māyā refers to the insubstantial and essence-less nature of things as well as their deceptive, false and vain character.[79]
Later texts such as the Lalitavistara also contain references to illusion:
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal behavior, strange speech, and a decreased ability to understand reality.[2] Other symptoms include false beliefs, unclear or confused thinking, hearing voices that do not exist, reduced social engagement and emotional expression, and lack of motivation.[2][3] People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, or substance-use disorders.[11] Symptoms typically come on gradually, begin in young adulthood, and, in many cases, never resolve.[3][5]
The causes of schizophrenia include environmental and genetic factors.[4] Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, cannabis use during adolescence, certain infections, the age of a person's parents, and poor nutrition during pregnancy.[4][12] Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants.[13] Diagnosis is based on observed behavior, the person's reported experiences and reports of others familiar with the person.[5] During diagnosis, a person's culture must also be taken into account.[5] As of 2013, there is no objective test.[5] Schizophrenia does not imply a "split personality" or dissociative identity disorder, conditions with which it is often confused in public perception.[14]
The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication, along with counselling, job training, and social rehabilitation.[2][4] It is unclear whether typical or atypical antipsychotics are better.[15] In those who do not improve with other antipsychotics, clozapine may be tried.[4] In more serious situations where there is risk to self or others, involuntary hospitalization may be necessary, although hospital stays are now shorter and less frequent than they once were.[16]
About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are affected by schizophrenia during their lifetimes.[9] In 2013, there were an estimated 23.6 million cases globally.[17] Males are more often affected and on average experience more severe symptoms.[2] About 20% of people eventually do well, and a few recover completely.[5] About 50% have lifelong impairment.[18] Social problems, such as long-term unemployment, poverty, and homelessness, are common.[5][19] The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 10–25 years less than that of the general population.[7] This is the result of increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate (about 5%).[9][20] In 2015, an estimated 17,000 people worldwide died from behavior related to, or caused by, schizophrenia.[
Antisocial personality disorder is defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Dissocial personality disorder (DPD), a similar or equivalent concept, is defined in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), which includes antisocial personality disorder in the diagnosis. Both manuals provide similar criteria for diagnosing the disorder.[5] Both have also stated that their diagnoses have been referred to, or include what is referred to, as psychopathy or sociopathy, but distinctions have been made between the conceptualizations of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy, with many researchers arguing that psychopathy is a disorder that overlaps with, but is distinguishable from, ASPD.[6][7][8][9][10]
Personality disorders (PD) are a class of mental disorders characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating from those accepted by the individual's culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significant distress or disability. The definitions may vary somewhat, according to source.[2][3][4] Official criteria for diagnosing personality disorders are listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the fifth chapter of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Personality, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish individual humans. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that differ from social norms and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. In general, personality disorders are diagnosed in 40–60% of psychiatric patients, making them the most frequent of psychiatric diagnoses.[5]
Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring collection of behavioral patterns often associated with considerable personal, social, and occupational disruption. Personality disorders are also inflexible and pervasive across many situations, largely due to the fact that such behavior may be ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are therefore perceived to be appropriate by that individual. This behavior can result in maladaptive coping skills and may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress, or depression. These behaviour patterns are typically recognized in adolescence, the beginning of adulthood or sometimes even childhood and often have a pervasive negative impact on the quality of life.[2][6][7]
Many issues occur with classifying a personality disorder. Because the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders occur within prevailing cultural expectations, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of inevitable subjectivity. They argue that the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders are based strictly on social, or even sociopolitical and economic considerations.[8]
The term narcotic (/nɑːrˈkɒtɪk/, from ancient Greek ναρκῶ narkō, "to make numb") originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties. In the United States, it has since become associated with opiates and opioids, commonly morphine and heroin, as well as derivatives of many of the compounds found within raw opium latex. The primary three are morphine, codeine, and thebaine (while thebaine itself is only very mildly psychoactive, it is a crucial precursor in the vast majority of semi-synthetic opioids, such as oxycodone).
Legally speaking, the term "narcotic" is imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations.[1][2] When used in a legal context in the U.S., a narcotic drug is one that is totally prohibited, such as heroin, or one that is used in violation of governmental regulation.
In the medical community, the term is more precisely defined and generally does not carry the same negative connotations.[3][4][5]
Statutory classification of a drug as a narcotic often increases the penalties for violation of drug control statutes. For example, although federal law classifies both cocaine and amphetamines as "Schedule II" drugs, the penalty for possession of cocaine is greater than the penalty for possession of amphetamines because cocaine, unlike amphetamines, is classified as a narcotic.
Heroin, also known as diamorphine among other names,[1] is an opioid most commonly used as a recreational drug for its euphoric effects.[2] It is used medically in several countries to relieve pain or in opioid replacement therapy.[7][8][9] It is typically injected, usually into a vein, but it can also be smoked, snorted, or inhaled.[2][10][11] The onset of effects is usually rapid and lasts for a few hours.[2]
Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction.[10] Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia.[10] After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use.[10] When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine.[2] It typically comes as a white or brown powder.[10]
Treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications.[10] Medications can include buprenorphine, methadone, or naltrexone.[10] A heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone.[10] An estimated 17 million people as of 2015[update] use opiates, of which heroin is the most common,[12][13] and opioid use resulted in 122,000 deaths.[14] The total number of heroin users worldwide as of 2015 is believed to have increased in Africa, the Americas, and Asia since 2000.[15] In the United States, approximately 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point, with 950,000 using it in the last year.[10][16] When people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid and often heroin.[12][17]
Heroin was first made by C. R. Alder Wright in 1874 from morphine, a natural product of the opium poppy.[18] Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs,[19] and it is generally illegal to make, possess, or sell without a license.[20] About 448 tons of heroin were made in 2016.[15] In 2015, Afghanistan produced about 66-percent of the world's opium.[12] Illegal heroin is often mixed with other substances such as sugar, starch, quinine, or strychnine.[2]
Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug.[11] It is commonly snorted, inhaled as smoke, or dissolved and injected into a vein.[10] Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation.[10] Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, and large pupils.[10] High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature.[12] Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes.[10] Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery.[13]
Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain.[11] After a short period of use, there is a high risk that dependence will occur.[11] Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, and sudden cardiac death.[11][14] Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar, which can result in additional toxicity.[15] Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure and be very physically tired.[11]
Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.[11] This results in greater concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain.[11] It can easily cross the blood–brain barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier.[16][17] Cocaine is a naturally occurring substance found in the coca plant which is mostly grown in South America.[10] In 2013, 419 kilograms were produced legally.[18] It is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to US$500 billion each year.[11] With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine.[11]
Cocaine is the second most frequently used illegal drug globally, after cannabis.[19] Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year.[11] Use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America.[11] Between one and three percent of people in the developed world have used cocaine at some point in their life.[11] In 2013, cocaine use directly resulted in 4,300 deaths, up from 2,400 in 1990.[20] The leaves of the coca plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times.[15] Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860.[11] Since 1961, the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime.[21]
Violence is "the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy."[2] Less conventional definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation."[3]
Globally, violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990.[4] Of the deaths in 2013, roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm (suicide), 405,000 to interpersonal violence, and 31,000 to collective violence (war) and legal intervention.[4] In Africa, out of every 100,000 people, each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death.[5] For each single death due to violence, there are dozens of hospitalizations, hundreds of emergency department visits, and thousands of doctors' appointments.[6] Furthermore, violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development.
In 2013, assault by firearm was the leading cause of death due to interpersonal violence, with 180,000 such deaths estimated to have occurred. The same year, assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000 deaths, with a remaining 110,000 deaths from personal violence being attributed to other causes.[4]
Violence in many forms can be preventable. There is a strong relationship between levels of violence and modifiable factors in a country such as concentrated (regional) poverty, income and gender inequality, the harmful use of alcohol, and the absence of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships between children and parents. Strategies addressing the underlying causes of violence can be relatively effective in preventing violence, although mental and physical health and individual responses, personalities, etc. have always been decisive factors in the formation of these behaviors.[7]
Māyā (Sanskrit; Tibetan wyl.: sgyu) is a Buddhist term translated as "pretense" or "deceit" that is identified as one of the twenty subsidiary unwholesome mental factors within the Mahayana Abhidharma teachings. In this context, it is defined as pretending to exhibit or claiming to have a good quality that one lacks.[
첨(諂, 산스크리트어: māyā, 영어: pretense, deceit)은 설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중 소번뇌지법(小煩惱地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이며, 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지)의 수번뇌심소(隨煩惱心所: 20가지) 중 소수번뇌심소(小隨煩惱心所: 10가지) 가운데 하나이다.[1][2]
첨(諂, māyā)은 다른 이들을 속이기 위해 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 스스로를 은폐하게 하는 마음작용이다. 달리 말하면, 첨(諂)은 다른 사람들이 자신의 속마음을 있는 그대로 명료하게 알 수 있지 못하도록 하고 그럼으로써 그 사람들이 자신을 계속 믿게 하는 것을 목적으로 하는 마음작용으로서, 남을 적극적으로 속임으로써 '속임'을 달성하는 것이 아니라 자신의 속마음을 은폐함으로써 '속임'을 달성하려는 마음작용이다. 보다 구체적으로는, 첨(諂)은 이러한 '속임'이라는 목적을 달성하기 위해 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음을 있는 그대로 참답게 드러내지 않게 하려는 마음작용이며, 또는 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음과는 다른 속마음을 가장하여 드러내게 함으로써 실제의 속마음이 드러나지 않게 하려는 마음작용이며, 또는 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 자신의 실제 속마음을 은폐하기 위해 아곡(阿曲: 간사하게 자기의 뜻을 굽혀 남에게 영합하고 아첨함[3]) 등과 같은 어떤 수단 또는 방편을 사용하게 하는 마음작용이다.[4]
薩迦耶見（巴利語：sakkāya-diṭṭhi，梵語：satkāya-dṛṣṭi），音譯為薩迦耶達利瑟致，義譯為有身見、身見、虛偽身見、移轉身見，佛教術語，被列為五見、十隨眠之一，含攝認為由五蘊組成的身體之中，存在自我，並升起「這是我」、「這是我所擁有」的各種見解
satkāya-dṛṣṭi
Maya (/ˈmɑːjə/; Devanagari: माया, IAST: māyā), literally "illusion" or "magic",[1][2] has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In ancient Vedic literature, Māyā literally implies extraordinary power and wisdom.[3] In later Vedic texts and modern literature dedicated to Indian traditions, Māyā connotes a "magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem".[2][4] Māyā is also a spiritual concept connoting "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal", and the "power or the principle that conceals the true character of spiritual reality".[5][6]
In Buddhism, Maya is the name of Gautama Buddha's mother.[7] In Hinduism, Maya is also an epithet for goddess,[8] and the name of a manifestation of Lakshmi, the goddess of "wealth, prosperity and love". Maya is also a name for girls.[7][9]
The Early Buddhist Texts contain some references to illusion, the most well known of which is the Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta in Pali (and with a Chinese Agama parallel at SĀ 265) which states:
Suppose, monks, that a magician (māyākāro) or a magician’s apprentice (māyākārantevāsī) would display a magical illusion (māyaṃ) at a crossroads. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder, and carefully investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void (rittaka), hollow (tucchaka), coreless (asāraka). For what core (sāro) could there be in a magical illusion (māyāya)? So too, monks, whatever kind of cognition there is, whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a monk inspects it, ponders it, and carefully investigates it, and it would appear to him to be void (rittaka), hollow (tucchaka), coreless (asāraka). For what core (sāro) could there be in cognition?[79]One sutra in the Āgama collection known as "Mahāsūtras" of the (Mūla)Sarvāstivādin tradition entitled the Māyājāla (Net of Illusion) deals especially with the theme of Maya. This sutra only survives in Tibetan translation and compares the five aggregates with further metaphors for illusion, including: an echo, a reflection in a mirror, a mirage, sense pleasures in a dream and a madman wandering naked.[79]
These texts give the impression that māyā refers to the insubstantial and essence-less nature of things as well as their deceptive, false and vain character.[79]
Later texts such as the Lalitavistara also contain references to illusion:
- "Complexes have no inner might, are empty in themselves; Rather like the stem of the plantain tree, when one reflects on them, Like an illusion (māyopama) which deludes the mind (citta), Like an empty fist with which a child is teased."[79]
Theravada[edit]
In Theravada Buddhism 'Māyā' is the name of the mother of the Buddha as well as a metaphor for the consciousness aggregate (viññana). The Theravada monk Bhikkhu Bodhi considers the Pali Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta “one of the most radical discourses on the empty nature of conditioned phenomena.”[79] Bodhi also cites the Pali commentary on this sutra, the Sāratthappakāsinī (Spk), which states:Cognition is like a magical illusion (māyā) in the sense that it is insubstantial and cannot be grasped. Cognition is even more transient and fleeting than a magical illusion. For it gives the impression that a person comes and goes, stands and sits, with the same mind, but the mind is different in each of these activities. Cognition deceives the multitude like a magical illusion (māyā).[80]Likewise, Bhikkhu Katukurunde Nyanananda Thera has written an exposition of the Kàlakàràma Sutta which features the image of a magical illusion as its central metaphor.[81
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal behavior, strange speech, and a decreased ability to understand reality.[2] Other symptoms include false beliefs, unclear or confused thinking, hearing voices that do not exist, reduced social engagement and emotional expression, and lack of motivation.[2][3] People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, or substance-use disorders.[11] Symptoms typically come on gradually, begin in young adulthood, and, in many cases, never resolve.[3][5]
The causes of schizophrenia include environmental and genetic factors.[4] Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, cannabis use during adolescence, certain infections, the age of a person's parents, and poor nutrition during pregnancy.[4][12] Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants.[13] Diagnosis is based on observed behavior, the person's reported experiences and reports of others familiar with the person.[5] During diagnosis, a person's culture must also be taken into account.[5] As of 2013, there is no objective test.[5] Schizophrenia does not imply a "split personality" or dissociative identity disorder, conditions with which it is often confused in public perception.[14]
The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication, along with counselling, job training, and social rehabilitation.[2][4] It is unclear whether typical or atypical antipsychotics are better.[15] In those who do not improve with other antipsychotics, clozapine may be tried.[4] In more serious situations where there is risk to self or others, involuntary hospitalization may be necessary, although hospital stays are now shorter and less frequent than they once were.[16]
About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are affected by schizophrenia during their lifetimes.[9] In 2013, there were an estimated 23.6 million cases globally.[17] Males are more often affected and on average experience more severe symptoms.[2] About 20% of people eventually do well, and a few recover completely.[5] About 50% have lifelong impairment.[18] Social problems, such as long-term unemployment, poverty, and homelessness, are common.[5][19] The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 10–25 years less than that of the general population.[7] This is the result of increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate (about 5%).[9][20] In 2015, an estimated 17,000 people worldwide died from behavior related to, or caused by, schizophrenia.[
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